What's on my mind?

God has a reason because He is intelligent but not rational.
Because it is something that moves from what is unknown to the known.
God knows everything
Ergo, God is not rational.

From the greek word deon meaning duty or obligation. A moral theory which is based on duty. Immanuel Kant is the proponent of this theory. He argues that to be in a morally right way one must act according to duty. Further he argues that it is the motives of the person who does the action which makes an action morally right and not the consequences of an action.

Deontologists who are also moral absolutists believe that some actions are wrong no matter what consequences follow from them. Immanuel Kant, for example, famously argued that it is always wrong to lie – even if a murderer is asking for the location of a potential victim.

Immanuel Kant begins with an argument that the highest good must be both good in itself, and good without qualification.


according to Kant, goodness depends on rightness. How?

Kant's three significant formulations of the categorical imperative are:

• Act only according to that maxim by which you can also will that it would become a universal law.
• Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.
• Act as though you were, through your maxims, a law-making member of a kingdom of ends.

to put simply, man has a duty on another person. respect the person and see that person as an end and not a means to an end.

critics of Deontology

1. no guidelines for conflicting duties.
2. act according only to the maxim which you can at the same time will to be universal.
3. categorical imperative which are immoral but can be justified are the following: death penalty, abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality, premarital sex, divorce, masturbation, gambling.
4. In the movie 'The Island', technology imposes on you a duty to use for the good of the people so it validates cloning.
   

This theory is similar to Ethical Egoism but on a larger scale. If Ethical Egoism concerns on the individual then Utilitarianism concerns on the society.

Principle of utility: the greatest good for the greatest number of people. It is also called the greatest happiness principle.

Good here means happiness. Happiness is defined as pleasure or the absence of pain.

It is thus a form of consequentialism that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome.

Somewhat related to Machiavelli's "The end justifies the means."


The Jeremy Bentham (left photo) reduces utilitarianism into mathematical theory in which a person can calculate his pleasure. Bentham is more of quantitative.

John Stuart Mill (above photo) is a student of Bentham who argues that that cultural, intellectual and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure because the former would be valued higher than the latter by competent judges. A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher. His famous quote was, "it is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied". Mill focuses on spiritual pleasure. Mill is more of qualitative.


Jeremy Bentham = 100 person is better than 1 person
John Stuart Mill = 1 Einstein is better than 100 retarded children

There is more to physical pleasure.

critics of Utilitarianism

1. In the movie "The Island", cloning is justified by a utilitarian point of world view and so cloning is valid.
2. Judging actions solely in terms of their consequences is incompatible with a foundational and universally-binding concept of justice.
3. This theory can't solve real-world ethical problems when various inviolable principles collide, like triage or the rightness or otherwise of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
4. ethical theories should not be based on the greatest number. The least is as equal as the other. Everyone has the right to live so the end does not justify the means.

idiot - adults who think like a child at the age of 3 yrs old below.

moron - adults who think like a child between the ages 8-12 yrs. old.

This theory is cognitive and subjective too. Ethical Subjectivism is base on the individual experiences while the Cultural relativism is base on cultural experiences.

The justification of the human acts are base on the opinions, beliefs and knowledge of the culture of the community which we hold to be true and correct.

for instance our culture of eating 'balut' (broiled ducks egg), it is just so easy for us to eat 'balut while other foreigners won't eat this kind of food. However, this is not a moral case. To make it a valid case instead of balut change it to a fetus. Rumors said that in some cultures a fetus is widely accepted and categorized as a food. They can be spotted and be bought in the marketplace even in broad daylight.

example of cultures that are justified in one community but neglected in the other are the ff:

1. cannibalism
2. same sex marriage
3. cloning
4. women as property
5. slavery
6. suicide bombings
7. human sacrifice or offerings
8. ethnic cleansing
9. etc.

critics of cultural relativism

1. Culture can't be an absolute criterion. Different cultures can cause conflicts.
2. Oppressive tendency
3. Disastrous for the weak and the defenseless.
4. In the movie "The Island", if its a culture that values life then it invalidates cloning. But if its culture is utilitarianism with the use of the maximum technology then it validates cloning as it was mentioned 'the new american dream'.
   

Unlike emotivism, this is a cognitive theory. Ethical subjectivism is a subjective type of moral theory.

are you familiar with the statement "No matter what they tell you, you'll believe what you think its true."?

Human acts are justified on the basis of the beliefs and opinions which we hold to be true and correct. Experiences base on beliefs, opinions and knowledge.

"so long as I say what I believe is right.

"I say" is an action
"what I believe is right" is an opinion.

It is true because you believe in it. You must believe it because its true. The behavior is a product solely of one's cause.

We are also subject to our wills.

Ethical subjectivism is the affirmation of freedom.

I believe therefore I act
I experienced therefore I believe
I act therefore I am free
I am therefore I experience.

This theory claims that there are no moral truths. An action is based only in the feeling and emotions of the person. So what is good or bad depends on the feelings. A.J Ayer is the main proponent of emotivism. He belongs to the school of Logical Positivism. It states that language should have corresponding action to reality ex. the term table has a corresponding existence in reality but the term good has no corresponing existence in reality.

Ayer states " It is worth mentioning that ethical terms do not serve only to express feelings. They are calculated to arouse feelings, and so to stimulate action. Indeed, some of them are used in such way as to give the sentence in which they occur the effects of command. Thus, the sentence " it is your duty to tell the truth" may be regarded both as expression of the command to tell the truth.

The conclusion is that there is no really objective truth but it depends only on feelings and emotion.

critics of emotivism

There is no moral knowledge because ethics can't be reduced to ethical moral truths.

In the movie "The island", emotivism will not say anything either moral or immoral because they don't believe in moral statements.
The client does not illicit horror from cloning because they did not know about the actions in the facility.

These are my notes taken from the General Ethics course of Msgr. Dennis Villarojo.

These are several Ethical Theories that propose a definition of good and justification of human action.

First is Emotivism that claims there are no moral truths. An action is based only in the feeling and emotions of the person. So what is good or bad depends on the feelings. A.J Ayer is the main proponent of emotivism. He belongs to the school of Logical Positivism. It states that language should have corresponding action to reality ex. the term table has a corresponding existence in reality but the term good has no corresponing existence in reality.

Ayer states " It is worth mentioning that ethical terms do not serve only to express feelings. They are calculated to arouse feelings, and so to stimulate action. Indeed, some of them are used in such way as to give the sentence in which they occur the effects of command. Thus, the sentence " it is your duty to tell the truth" may be regarded both as expression of the command to tell the truth.

The conclusion is that there is no really objective truth but it depends only on feelings and emotion.

Second is Ethical Subjectivism. It states that moral truths are based only on personal experience. One is right in his actions and be respected of his actions because that what is his opinion and that is what he experiences.

Nietzsche advocated this kind of thinking. He says that to follow the tradition, the society and others is immoral. The individual should follow what his opinion tells so. Existentialism also advocates this kind of belief that man defines himself and live according to what he believes. Existence precedes essence.

Third is the Ethical Egoism. It presupposes that reason is the only means to know something including moral truths. So, it advocates that person must act according to their self best interest by using reason.

Ayn Rand is the main proponent of this kind of thinking. She advocates the rational self-interest and also she has a book entitled The Virtue of Selfishness.

Fourth is Utilitarianism. It is similar to Ethical Egoism but on a larger scale. If Ethical Egoism concerns on the individual then Utilitarianism concerns the society. Their slogan is " the greater net happiness for all".

Jeremy Bentham and Joohn Stuart Mill advocate this kind of system. The former reduces utilitarianism into mathematical theory in which a person can calculate his pleasure but the latter focuses on spiritual pleasure. So, Bentham is more of quantitative while Mill is more of qualitative.

Fifth is Deontology. The basis for its morality is duty. Immanuel Kant is the proponent of this system. He regards duty as absolute.

Sixth is the Rights Ethics. This is just the other side of Deontology. Rights Ethics emphasizes on the rights of the individual.


Seventh is the Natural Law Ethics. Cicero advocates that true law is right reason in agreement with nature, it is of universal application and everlasting, it summons to duty by its commands and averts from wrong doing its prohibitions.

now watch this movie and relate what you have learned.

keywords:

• justification - reasons for human actions. It gives importance on the action.
• finality or teleology - we will be using the teleological approach of Aristotle and St. Thomas. it means end. what is the end of man? everything tends towards a purpose. teleology gives importance on the being, the man.
  

greek term 'tele' - what is the proper end of man?
Think of purpose as nature and not only tendency but operations as what they are.

Nature has its own operation and it do not serve man.

Man must know the operations of man. 'Man's nature is to seek for justification and finality.'

Now in these series of posts we will discuss all of the following one by one:

1. Emotivism (non cognitive)
   
2. Ethical subjectivisim (cognitive and subjective)
3. Cultural relativism (cognitive and subjective)
4. Ethical egoism (cognitive and objective)
5. Utilitarianism
   
6. Deontology
7. Rights ethics
8. Natural law ethics
9. Virtue ethics